The previous one is too easy. Try this!
This challenge naturally follows from Secret Server, of which you can find a writeup here.
We are given another python script, which pretty much resembles the first one from Secret Server.
What has changed? This time the server won’t provide us with the ciphertext for the flag, but we will instead need to find the value of a 56-byte random token. If we prove to the server that we know its value, it will kindly give us the flag in exchange.
To complicate things further, we are only allowed to send 340 requests before the connection is closed and the token reset.
It’s obvious that our previous approach will not work, since it required up to 256 request per character. We need to find a different way to solve this.
A different approach
Trying to find a character at a time is a good technique. The problem is that we can’t send 256 requests for every single character. We would like to have, if possible, an oracle that can immediately reveal to us the value of a byte, with a single request.
Let’s look around and try to find something like this. To start, let’s just think about everything that could give us information about the value of unknown plaintexts.
Recall: the unpad method can unpad up to 256 characters, depending on the value of the last byte of the last block. Good! If we can recognize how many of the characters have been unpadded, this means that we immediately know the value of the last byte! (without making any additional requests)
Finding how many of the bytes have been unpadded
We need a way to distinguish among all 256 possible lengths at which the plaintext has been cut.
This is how we can do it: we craft a long, fixed message (longer than 256 bytes). We then replace the beginning of the message with get-md5, so that the server will return to us the encrypted hash of the decrypted and unpadded message.
We can then append any block we want to this fixed message. Whatever the additional block is, the first part of the message will stay the same. Depending on the decrypted value of the last byte of the block we append, the fixed message will be cut at different positions after unpadding.
The server will then reply with the encrypted hash of the truncated fixed message, which is indipendent of the block we appended, and only depends on the value of the last byte.
We can use unpad as an oracle!
(Note: to preserve the original plaintext of the added block we will also have to add the block before it)
NB: if the unpadding comes short of removing the added blocks, the MD5 hash will include part of them, thus returning an unknown ciphertext. We can avoid this problem by recognizing this case, flipping the most significant bit on the last byte and making it fall in our preferred range.
This method has a limitation though: we can only find the value of the last byte of a block. This is therefore not enough to discover the value of the token.
Generalizing to characters in every position
We can bypass the issue of only knowing the last byte of each block with some creativity.
We can move to a different problem: instead of finding the characters of the tokens at every index (which is currently impossible) we can obtain the encrypted MD5 hash of the token, truncated at every possible index, then find the last character of the hashes.
(Note: this is possible since the MD5 hash is a raw digest, not a hexdigest, thus the last byte can assume any of the 256 ASCII values.)
Knowing the last byte of the hashes, it is trivially possible to find all the preimages with a hash that ends with the same character. As before, we can proceed one character at a time.
Collisions on a single byte are possible, but we can just keep all possible candidates and gradually reduce the number later.
The attack
The complete attack is something like this:
- Collect the encrypted MD5 hashes for every truncation of the token (56 requests)
- Send the long fixed message (starting with
get-md5) and get the encrypted MD5 hashes of the message at every unpadding length (256-32=224 requests) - Add each encrypted token MD5 hash to the end of the long fixed message, without the final padding block, send it to the server and check the reply (56 requests):
- if the resulting hash is one of the known ones, we know the value of the last byte of the MD5 hash of that cut of the token
- otherwise flip the most significant bit of the last byte and check again (i.e. send a new request)
- Locally find all possible token candidates that produce the correct last byte when hashed.
At the end of this procedure we will have a list of possible values for the token.
How to reduce the pool of candidates
Since the possible candidates which satisfy the constraints on the last byte of the hashes are usually more than one, we need to find a way to reduce their number.
A simple idea is revealing the actual value of the last byte of every token block, instead of using their hashes. We can do this for the first, second and third block of the token. This is still usually not enough to uniquely identify the token, but in practice the number of candidates is reduced to less than 30 and often less than 10.
Since the whole attack requires around 300 requests we still have some leeway to find other ways to shrink the amount of candidates, like using the SHA1 hashes. The effort though is not really worth it, since with a little testing I found that the attack as it is already succeeds once every ~10 runs.
We just run it a few times and get our flag: hitcon{uNp@d_M3th0D_i5_am4Z1n9!}
Appreciation to HITCON for the amazing challenge! The whole CTF was challenging but rewarding, I will be waiting to play again next year :)
Here is the complete exploit. You can also download it from here.
from pwn import *
import base64, random, string
from Crypto.Hash import MD5, SHA256
def pad(msg):
pad_length = 16-len(msg)%16
return msg+chr(pad_length)*pad_length
def unpad(msg):
return msg[:-ord(msg[-1])]
def xor_str(s1, s2):
'''XOR between two strings. The longer one is truncated.'''
return ''.join(chr(ord(x) ^ ord(y)) for x, y in zip(s1, s2))
def blockify(text, blocklen):
'''Splits the text as a list of blocklen-long strings'''
return [text[i:i+blocklen] for i in xrange(0, len(text), blocklen)]
def flipiv(oldplain, newplain, iv):
'''Modifies an IV to produce the desired new plaintext in the following block'''
flipmask = xor_str(oldplain, newplain)
return xor_str(iv, flipmask)
def solve_proof(p):
instructions = p.recvline().strip()
suffix = instructions[12:28]
print suffix
digest = instructions[-64:]
print digest
prefix = ''.join(random.choice(string.ascii_letters+string.digits) for _ in xrange(4))
newdigest = SHA256.new(prefix + suffix).hexdigest()
while newdigest != digest:
prefix = ''.join(random.choice(string.ascii_letters+string.digits) for _ in xrange(4))
newdigest = SHA256.new(prefix + suffix).hexdigest()
print 'POW:', prefix
p.sendline(prefix)
HOST = '52.192.29.52'
PORT = 9999
welcomeplain = pad('Welcome!!')
# retry until we guess the token correctly among the candidates
while 1:
try:
p = remote(HOST, PORT)
solve_proof(p)
# get welcome
welcome = p.recvline(keepends=False)[13:] # remove prompt
print 'Welcome:', welcome
welcome_dec = base64.b64decode(welcome)
welcomeblocks = blockify(welcome_dec, 16)
# get command-not-found
p.sendline(welcome)
notfound = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print 'Command not found:', notfound
# get encrypted token
payload = flipiv(welcomeplain, 'get-token'.ljust(16, '\x01'), welcomeblocks[0])
payload += welcomeblocks[1]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(payload))
token = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print 'Token:', token
token_dec = base64.b64decode(token)
tokenblocks = blockify(token_dec, 16)
tokenlen = len(token_dec) - 16
# get encrypted md5 for the token, cut at every possible index, from 8 to the end
print ''
print 'Collecting encrypted md5 hashes...'
tokenmd5s = []
for i in range(56):
# replace first 7 characters with 'get-md5'
payload = flipiv('token: '.ljust(16, '\x00'), 'get-md5'.ljust(16, '\x00'), tokenblocks[0])
payload += ''.join(tokenblocks[1:])
# add a block where we control the last byte, to unpad at the correct length ('token: ' + i characters)
payload += flipiv(welcomeplain, 'A'*15 + chr(16 + 16 + tokenlen - 7 - 1 - i), welcomeblocks[0])
payload += welcomeblocks[1]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(payload))
md5_enc = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print i, md5_enc
tokenmd5s.append(md5_enc)
# get the ciphertexts of the md5 hashes of a fixed message for every unpadding length from 32 to 255
# these will be used as oracles to guess the amount that was unpadded
# we can reuse some of the ciphertexts we obtained before
print ''
print 'Collecting md5 oracles...'
oraclemd5s = {} # key = md5ciphertext, value = unpadding amount
# we will craft a message longer than 256 bytes to check the unpadding up to 256 characters
for unpad in range(32, 209):
# 1 block
payload = flipiv('token: '.ljust(16, '\x00'), 'get-md5'.ljust(16, '\x00'), tokenblocks[0])
# 1 + 4 = 5 blocks
payload += ''.join(tokenblocks[1:])
# 5 + 11 = 16 blocks
payload += 'A' * 16 * 11 # padding to reach 256 characters
# 16 + 1 = 17 blocks
payload += flipiv(welcomeplain, chr(unpad).rjust(16, '\x00'), welcomeblocks[0]) # replace last byte
# 17 + 1 = 18 blocks
payload += welcomeblocks[1]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(payload))
md5_enc = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print unpad, md5_enc
oraclemd5s[md5_enc] = unpad
# we can reuse the ciphertexts when the additional crafted message is unpadded away
for unpad in range(209, 256):
md5_enc = tokenmd5s[8 + 1 + 255 - unpad]
print unpad, md5_enc
oraclemd5s[md5_enc] = unpad
# send token md5 hashes without padding block, compare unpadding to known ciphertexts
print ''
print 'Revealing last byte for each md5 hash...'
candidates = ['']
for index in range(56):
# send the same crafted message as before, but replace last block with the md5 ciphertext
payload = flipiv('token: '.ljust(16, '\x00'), 'get-md5'.ljust(16, '\x00'), tokenblocks[0])
payload += ''.join(tokenblocks[1:])
payload += 'A' * 16 * 11
payload += base64.b64decode(tokenmd5s[index])[:-16] # send whole md5 ciphertext without padding
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(payload))
print index
res = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print "received:", res
# if the ciphertext is in oraclemd5s, we know the last byte of the md5 hash
if res in oraclemd5s:
lastbyte = oraclemd5s[res]
print 'Found byte:', hex(lastbyte)
newcandidates = []
for x in candidates:
for c in range(256):
if MD5.new(x + chr(c)).digest()[-1] == chr(lastbyte):
newcandidates.append(x + chr(c))
candidates = newcandidates
# if the ciphertext is the one for 'command not found', the plaintext was completely unpadded
# the last byte is 0 (plain = plain[:-0] -> '')
elif res == notfound:
print 'Command not found -> 0'
lastbyte = 0
newcandidates = []
for x in candidates:
for c in range(256):
if MD5.new(x + chr(c)).digest()[-1] == chr(lastbyte):
newcandidates.append(x + chr(c))
candidates = newcandidates
# if we haven't seen the ciphertext before, the unpadding included the last 2 blocks
else:
print 'Not found. [1-32]'
# flip most significant bit of last byte to move it in a good range
newpayload = payload[:-17] + xor_str(payload[-17], '\x80') + payload[-16:]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(newpayload))
res = p.recvline(keepends=False)
# check, same as before
if res in oraclemd5s:
lastbyte = oraclemd5s[res] ^ 0x80
print 'Found byte:', hex(lastbyte)
newcandidates = []
for x in candidates:
for c in range(256):
if MD5.new(x + chr(c)).digest()[-1] == chr(lastbyte):
newcandidates.append(x + chr(c))
candidates = newcandidates
elif res == notfound:
print 'Command not found -> 0'
lastbyte = 0 ^ 0x80
newcandidates = []
for x in candidates:
for c in range(256):
if MD5.new(x + chr(c)).digest()[-1] == chr(lastbyte):
newcandidates.append(x + chr(c))
candidates = newcandidates
else:
raise AssertionError("Something went wrong, couldn't identify byte.")
print ''
print 'Candidates:'
print candidates
print 'No. of candidates:', len(candidates)
# if there's more than one candidate, we can remove some of them
if len(candidates) > 0:
print ''
print 'Reducing number of candidates...'
# get characters no. 8, 24, 40, at the end of each token block
for block in range(3):
index = 8 + block * 16
# send same crafted message as before, but with one of the token blocks at the end (to find its last byte)
payload = flipiv('token: '.ljust(16, '\x00'), 'get-md5'.ljust(16, '\x00'), tokenblocks[0])
payload += ''.join(tokenblocks[1:])
payload += 'A' * 16 * 11
payload += tokenblocks[block]
payload += tokenblocks[block + 1]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(payload))
print 'Byte at:', index
res = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print "received:", res
# same checks as before
if res in oraclemd5s:
lastbyte = oraclemd5s[res]
print 'Found byte:', hex(lastbyte)
candidates = filter(lambda x: x[index] == chr(lastbyte), candidates)
print 'Candidates:'
print candidates
elif res == notfound:
print 'Command not found -> 0'
lastbyte = 0
candidates = filter(lambda x: x[index] == chr(lastbyte), candidates)
print 'Candidates:'
print candidates
else:
print 'Not found. [1-32]'
# flip most significant bit of last byte to move it in a good range
newpayload = payload[:-17] + xor_str(payload[-17], '\x80') + payload[-16:]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(newpayload))
res = p.recvline(keepends=False)
if res in oraclemd5s:
lastbyte = oraclemd5s[res] ^ 0x80
print 'Found byte:', hex(lastbyte)
candidates = filter(lambda x: x[index] == chr(lastbyte), candidates)
print 'Candidates:'
print candidates
elif res == notfound:
print 'Command not found -> 0'
lastbyte = 0 ^ 0x80
candidates = filter(lambda x: x[index] == chr(lastbyte), candidates)
print 'Candidates:'
print candidates
else:
raise AssertionError("Something went wrong, couldn't identify byte.")
print ''
print 'Candidates left:', len(candidates)
# if we didn't narrow down the candidates to a single one, we will just send the first one
token = candidates[0]
# send token and get flag
payload = flipiv(welcomeplain, 'check-token'.ljust(16, '\x01'), welcomeblocks[0])
payload += welcomeblocks[1]
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(payload))
print ''
print p.recvline(keepends=False) # 'Give me the token!'
print 'Sending token...'
p.sendline(base64.b64encode(token))
flag = p.recvline(keepends=False)
print 'Flag:'
print flag
with open('flag', 'w') as f:
f.write(flag)
exit(0)
# if the token was not correct, try again
except EOFError:
print 'Failed! Trying again...'
print ''
p.close()
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